Streamlining Life Cycle Assessment to support Ecodesign through multi-criteria materials selection

This thesis aims to demonstrate how these issues can be solved using specific case studies as examples. The first chapter is dedicated to an introduction to the LCA methodology, in which it is also possible to find a literature review focused on the strengths and weaknesses that may characterize LCA. The second part of the chapter details the methods utilized to analyze uncertainty in LCA results, the state of the art for streamlined and predictive approaches and, finally, an overview of a multi-criteria analysis method useful for materials selection. In particular, the uncertainty analysis associated with LCA results may represent the starting point for the development of streamlined LCA approaches and possible methods of forecasting the environmental results of novel technologies. On the other hand, the multi-criteria analysis grounded in the uncertainty analysis presents a robust method of materials selection in support of Ecodesign. In the second chapter, the uncertainty analysis is used to develop a streamlined LCA method founded on the probabilistic underspecification approach, proposed to support the building design process. The case studies analyzed in this section represent a series of residential building assemblies (exterior walls, interior walls, foundations, roofs, floors, windows, doors, exterior finishes) that were used to test the streamlined method and obtain distributions of results using a cradle-to-gate approach along five phases of the building design process. The bill of materials (BOM) of a building assembly can be specified using different levels of information, which can be really generic during the concept design and fully detailed during the executive project. The low-fidelity characterization of a BOM and the uncertainty associated with these low levels of fidelity are systematically quantified through probabilistic underspecification using a hierarchical classification of materials. Quantitative environmental results, processed with uncertainty analysis, were obtained using low-fidelity categories for materials and building assemblies, demonstrating that LCA can be applied not only when a complete and detailed BOM is available but also when fewer details are known. Finally, decision-making at different stages of the design process is sustained by this approach and is based on the use of a comparison indicator. The third chapter advances the research aimed at streamlining the LCA of buildings with probabilistic underspecification and uncertainty analysis. In particular, it investigates whether LCA can be robustly streamlined through an effective and efficient triage of data collection and the consequent selected use of specific and resource-intensive information. In this context, tests were conducted with a series of building typologies (single-family detached houses and multi-family residential buildings), again analyzed with a cradle-to-gate approach. The probabilistic triage approach was tested to clarify how to use probabilistic underspecification and reduce the effort involved in specification by identifying the activities that require careful characterization. With this approach, by specifying only one part of the bill of materials to the highest level of specificity, the results proved to be both reasonably accurate and obtainable with less effort. Impacts such as global warming, acidification, eutrophication, and smog creation were assessed, and the results indicated that just 40-46% of the BOM components represent 75% of the total impacts of both single-family houses and multi-family buildings. Where the second and third chapters were devoted to the streamlined analysis of conventional products, the fourth chapter addresses the use of uncertainty analysis to forecast the environmental burden of an innovative material. Here, a scale-up protocol for an environmental impact assessment is proposed as a means to develop a streamlined ex-ante LCA approach. The novel element of this chapter consists of the adopted scale-up protocol. It does not rely on primary data collected by monitoring real industrial systems, as these data do not yet exist for the product of interest; instead, data measured in a plant at the pilot scale are used alongside data simulated from thermo-chemical considerations based on the stoichiometry of the considered reaction. The scale-up protocol is described and then applied to the case of polybutylene succinate (PBS), a biopolymer that is gaining attention (particularly as a replacement for polyolefins) and is obtained from bio-based succinic acid. Monte Carlo simulation was used to process the uncertainty data for all of the assessments, and a sensitivity analysis was performed to evaluate and compare the different renewable sources and chemical routes available for the production of bio-based succinic acid. The case study of PBS highlights how innovative products can be analyzed without the use of primary data, providing a way to forecast environmental impacts for novel technologies. The advantages of the adopted scale-up methodology consist of the ease of implementation and the possibility of strengthening the Ecodesign approach. In the fifth chapter, a multi-criteria analysis was used to complete the ex-ante LCA results for PBS. The purpose of this analysis was to compare PBS to alternative materials on the basis of more than one property and for use in a specific function. This approach led to the definition of a new concept of the system boundary of the assessment: from cradle to function. The motivation for this alternative strategy stems from the application of the LCA framework to a material to obtain an ecoprofile: the scope of the analysis is generally from cradle to the factory gate, while the unit of mass (or volume) of the material is usually taken as the functional unit for the analysis. However, these methodological choices place relevant limitations on the effectiveness of the assessment. In this chapter, a multi-criteria materials approach was tested using the PBS results to verify and validate the environmental viability of this material’s usage in packaging films. The most novel element of this research is the use of the customized ex-ante LCA and the uncertainty analysis, the latter of which is used to determine the uncertainty in material indices. The results were graphically represented with Ashby plots. When elongation at break and environmental performance were considered, PBS displayed a performance that was better than other traditional polyesters and comparable to the polyolefins considered; performance in terms of this set of properties is particularly beneficial in the case of secondary packaging. In the case of primary packaging, barrier properties acquire major relevance; in this regard, PBS presented among the best trade-offs for the simultaneous optimization of oxygen permeability, elongation at break and environmental impact. Finally, the sixth chapter is devoted to the review of the approaches that were implemented and tested to streamline LCA, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses for each analyzed system and discussing future methodological developments. In particular, the uncertainty analysis based on the Monte Carlo method was used not just to characterize the quality of results but also to develop and implement streamlined approaches. Moreover, the uncertainty analysis proved to be useful for forecasting environmental results for early-stage systems and innovative materials

Low-cost electromyography: validity against a commercial system depends on exercise type and intensity

The aim of this study was to assess the validity of a custom-made low cost (LC) and a commercial surface EMG apparatus in controlled experimental conditions and different exercise types: maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) at 105, 90, 75, 60, 45 and 30\ub0 knee angle and explosive fix-end contractions of the knee extensors (75\ub0) at an isometric dynamometer. sEMG of vastus lateralis was recorded from the same electrodes simultaneously, then analyzed in the same way; sEMG were finally expressed in percentage of those collected at 75\ub0MVC. LC underestimated the sEMG signal at the more extended knee angles (30-60\ub0), significant difference was observed only at 30\ub0. In the explosive contractions no differences between devices were observed in average and peak sEMG, as well as in the time to peak and the activation time. Bland-Altman tests and correlation parameters indicate the LC device is not sensible enough to detect the time to peak and the peak values of the sEMG signal properly. Results suggest low-cost systems might be a valid alternative to commercial ones, but attention must be paid when analyzing rapid events

Study for the development of an endurance testing method for washing machines

This study is part of a technical support contract signed between DG Environment and DG Joint Research Centre, regarding Environmental Footprinting, material efficiency in product policy and the European Platform on LCA (2013-2017). In particular, Task and Deliverable 8 are entitled “Develop/test potentially standardized method on material efficiency, to be applied to relevant product groups” and aim at developing feasibility studies on potentially standardized methods for assessing durability of products. The main objective of this report consists of outlining and testing a procedure for assessing durability of electric washing machines for household use. In particular the report will: • investigate existing endurance tests, • define whether such endurance tests can be suitable for a possible standardised testing procedure, • develop and test a durability procedure on exemplary washing machines, and • assess the durability procedure and provide guidelines for future development. Chapters 2 and 3 of the present report concern I) a literature review, with a focus on the state of the art of washing machine durability, the average usage in Europe, frequent failure modes and different existing theories behind durability tests; II) the study of existing international standards, currently dealing with safety of electronic devices and household appliances, endurance requirements for washing machine parts and guidelines to assess the performance during the washing cycle; III) comments and feedback from experts that were contacted during the study in order to gather information about tests, non-disclosed procedures, failure mode statistics and possible answers to the question of methods able to measure or to verify durability. Chapter 4 provides the scientific background about the dynamics of a horizontal axis washing machine, which can be seen physically as a vibrating system where the tub (including the drum) is fixed with springs on the top of the housing. Finally, a novel procedure for durability testing is proposed in chapter 5. The proposed method is a first attempt to find a framework in which several washing machine types can fit in and, eventually, a point of discussion for further improvements and diversification. The results of the proposed method are presented in chapter 6 and discussed in chapter 7.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Influence of muscle-belly and tendon gearing on the energy cost of human walking

This study combines metabolic and kinematic measurements at the whole-body level, with EMG and ultrasound measurements to investigate the influence of muscle-tendon mechanical behavior on the energy cost (Cnet) of walking (from 2 to 8 km·h−1). Belly gearing (Gb = Δmuscle-belly length/Δfascicles length) and tendon gearing (Gt = ∆muscle-tendon unit length/∆muscle-belly length) of vastus lateralis (VL) and gastrocnemius medialis (GM) were calculated based on ultrasound data. Pendular energy recovery (%R) was calculated based on kinematic data, whereas the cumulative activity per distance travelled (CMAPD) was calculated for the VL, GM, tibialis anterior, and biceps femoris as the ratio between their EMG activity and walking speed. Finally, total CAMPD (CMAPDTOT) was calculated as the sum of the CMAPD of all the investigate muscles. Cnet and CMAPDTOT showed a U-shaped behavior with a minimum at 4.2 and 4.1 km·h−1, respectively; while %R, VL, and GM belly gearing showed an opposite trend, reaching a maximum (60% ± 5%, 1.1 ± 0.1 and 1.5 ± 0.1, respectively), between 4.7 and 5 km·h−1. Gt was unaffected by speed in GM (3.5 ± 0.1) and decreased as a function of it in VL. A multiple stepwise linear regression indicated that %R has the greatest influence on Cnet, followed by CMAPDTOT and GM belly gearing. The role of Gb on Cnet could be attributed to its role in determining muscle work: when Gb increases, fascicles shortening decreases compared with that of the muscle-belly, thereby reducing the energy cost of contraction

Analysis of material efficiency aspects of personal computers product group

This report has been developed within the project ‘Technical support for environmental footprinting, material efficiency in product policy and the European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment’ (LCA) (2013-2017) funded by the Directorate-General for Environment. The report summarises the findings of the analysis of material-efficiency aspects of the personal-computer (PC) product group, namely durability, reusability, reparability and recyclability. It also aims to identify material-efficiency aspects which can be relevant for the current revision of the Ecodesign Regulation (EU) No 617/2013. Special focus was given to the content of EU critical raw materials (CRMs) ( ) in computers and computer components, and how to increase the efficient use of these materials, including material savings thanks to reuse and repair and recovery of the products at end of life. The analysis has been based mainly on the REAPro method ( ) developed by the Joint Research Centre for the material-efficiency assessment of products. This work has been carried out in the period June 2016-September 2017, in parallel with the development of The preparatory study on the review of Regulation 617/2013 (Lot 3) — computers and computer servers led by Viegand Maagøe and Vlaamse Instelling voor Technologisch Onderzoek NV (VITO) (2017) ( ). During this period, close communication was maintained with the authors of the preparatory study. This allowed ensuring consistency between input data and assumptions of the two studies. Moreover, outcomes of the present research were used as scientific basis for the preparatory study for the analysis of material-efficiency aspects for computers. The research has been differentiated as far as possible for different types of computers (i.e. tablet, notebooks and desktop computers). The report starts with the analysis of the technical and scientific background relevant for material-efficiency aspects of computers, such as market sales, expected lifetime, bill of materials, and a focus on the content of CRMs (especially cobalt in batteries, rare earths including neodymium in hard disk drives and palladium in printed circuit boards). Successively the report analyses the current practices for repair, reuse and recycling of computers. Based on results available from the literature, material efficiency of the product group has the potential to be improved, in particular the lifetime extension. The residence time ( ) of IT equipment put on the market in 2000 versus 2010 generally declined by approximately 10 % (Huisman et al., 2012), while consumers expressed their preference for durable goods, lasting considerably longer than they are typically used (Wieser and Tröger, 2016). Design barriers (such as difficulties for the disassembly of certain components or for their processing for data sanitisation) can hinder the repair and the reuse of products. Malfunction and accident rates are not negligible (IDC, 2016, 2010; SquareTrade, 2009) and difficulties in repair may bring damaged products to be discarded even if still functioning. Once a computer reaches the end of its useful life, it is addressed to ‘waste of electrical and electronic equipment’ (WEEE) recycling plants. Recycling of computers is usually based on a combination of manual dismantling of certain components (mainly components containing hazardous substances or valuable materials, e.g. batteries, printed circuit boards, display panels, data-storage components), followed by mechanical processing including shredding. The recycling of traditional desktop computers is perceived as non-problematic by recyclers, with the exception of some miniaturised new models (i.e. mini desktop computers), which still are not found in recycling plants and which could present some difficulties for the extraction of printed circuit boards and batteries (if present). The design of notebooks and tablets can originate some difficulties for the dismantling of batteries, especially for computers with compact design. Recycling of plastics from computers of all types is generally challenging due to the large use of different plastics with additives, such as flame retardants. According to all the interviewed recyclers, recycling of WEEE plastics with flame retardant is very poor or null with current technologies. Building on this analysis, the report then focuses on possible actions to improve material efficiency in computers, namely measures to improve (a) waste prevention, (b) repair and reuse and (c) design for recycling. The possible actions identified are listed hereinafter. (a) Waste prevention a.1 Implementation of dedicated functionality ( ) for the optimisation of the lifetime of batteries in notebooks: the lifetime of batteries could be extended by systematically implementing a preinstalled functionality on notebooks, which makes it possible to optimise the state of charge (SoC) of the battery when the device is used in grid operation (stationary). By preventing the battery remaining at full load when the notebook is in grid operation, the lifetime of batteries can be potentially extended by up to 50 %. Users could be informed about the existence and characteristics of such a functionality and the potential benefits related to its use. a.2 Decoupling external power supplies (EPS) from personal computers: the provision of information on the EPS specifications and the presence/absence of the EPS in the packaging of notebooks and tablets could facilitate the reuse by the consumer of already-available EPS with suitable characteristics. Such a measure could promote the use of common EPS across different devices, as well as the reuse of already-owned EPS. This would result in a reduction in material consumption for the production of unnecessary power supplies (and related packaging and transport) and overall a reduction of treatment of electronic waste. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) technical specification (TS) 62700, the Standard Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 1823 and Recommendation ITU-T L.1002 can be used to develop standards for the correct definition of connectors and power specifications. a.3 Provision of information about the durability of batteries: the analysis identified the existence of endurance tests suitable for the assessment of the durability of batteries in computers according to existing standards (e.g. EN 61960). The availability of information about these endurance tests could help users to get an indication on the residual capacity of the battery after a predefined number of charge/discharge cycles. Moreover, such information would allow for comparison between different products and potentially push the market towards longer-lasting batteries. a.4 Provision of information about the ‘liquid ingress protection (IP) class’ for personal computers: this can be assessed for a notebook or tablet by performing specific tests, developed according to existing standards (e.g. IEC 60529). Users can be informed about the level of protection of the computer against the ingress of liquids (e.g. dripping water or spraying water or water jets) and in this way prevent one of the most common causes of computer failure. The yearly rate of estimated material saving if dedicated functionality for the optimisation of the lifetime of batteries (a.1) were used ranges from around 2 360 to 5 400 tonnes (t) of different materials per year. About 450 t of cobalt, 100 t of lithium, 210 t of nickel and 730 t of copper could be saved every year. The estimated potential savings of materials when EPS are decoupled from notebooks and tablets (a.2) are in the range 2 300-4 600 t/year (80 % related to the notebook category, and 20 % to tablets). These values can be obtained when 10-20 % of notebooks and tablets are sold without an EPS, as users can reuse already-owned and compatible EPS. Under these conditions, for example, about 190-370 t of copper can be saved every year. This estimate may increase when the same EPS can be used for both notebooks and tablets (at the moment the assessment is based on the assumption that the two product types were kept separated). Further work is needed to assess the potential improvements thanks to the provision of information about the durability of batteries (a.3), and about the ‘liquid-IP class’ (a.4). The former option (a.3) has the potential to boost competition among battery manufacturers, resulting in more durable products. The latter option (a.4) has the potential to reduce computer damage due to liquid spillage, ranked among the most recurrent failure modes. (b) Repair/reuse b.1 and b.2 Provision of information to facilitate computer disassembly: the disassembly of relevant components (such as the display panel, keyboard, data storage, batteries, memory and internal power-supply units) plays a key role to enhance repair and reuse of personal computers. Some actions have therefore been discussed (b.1) to provide professional repair operators with documentation about the sequence of disassembly, extraction, replacement and reassembly operations needed for each relevant component of personal computers, and (b.2) to provide end-users with specific information about the disassembly and replacement of batteries in notebooks and tablets. b.3 Secure data deletion for personal computers: this is the process of deliberately, permanently and irreversibly erasing all traces of existing data from storage media, overwriting the data completely in such a way that access to the original data, or parts of them, becomes infeasible for a given level of effort. Secure data deletion is essential for the security of personal data and to allow the reuse of computers by a different user. Secure data deletion for personal computers can be ensured by means of built-in functionality. A number of existing national standards (HMG IS Standard No 5 (the United Kingdom), DIN 66399 (Germany), NIST 800-88r1 (the United States (US)) can be used as a basis to start standardisation activities on secure data deletion. The estimated potential savings of materials due to the provision of information and tools to facilitate computer disassembly were quantified in the range of 150-620 t/year for mobile computers (notebooks and tablets) within the first 2 years of use, and in the range of 610 2 460 t/year for mobile computers older than 2 years. Secure data deletion of personal computers, instead, is considered a necessary prerequisite to enhance reuse. The need to take action on this is related to policies on privacy and protection of personal data, as the General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 and in particular its Article 25 on ‘data protection by design and by default’. Future work is needed to strengthen the analysis, however it was estimated that secure data deletion has the potential to double volume of desktop, notebook and tablet computers reused after the first useful lifetime. (c) Recyclability c.1 Provision of information to facilitate computer dismantling: computers could be designed so that crucial components for material aspects (e.g. content of hazardous substances and/or valuable materials) can be easily identified and extracted in order to be processed by means of specific recycling treatments. Design for dismantling can focus on components listed in Annex VII of the WEEE directive ( ). The ‘ease of dismantling’ can be supported by the provision of relevant information (such as a diagram of the product showing the location of the components, the content of hazardous substances, instructions on the sequence of operations needed to remove these components, including type and number of fastening techniques to be unlocked, and tool(s) required). c.2 Marking of plastic components: although all plastics are theoretically recyclable, in practice the recyclability of plastics in computers is generally low, mainly due to the large amount of different plastic components with flame retardants (FRs) and other additives. Marking of plastic components according to existing standards (e.g. ISO 11469 and ISO 1043 series) can facilitate identification and sorting of plastic components during the manual dismantling steps of the recycling. c.3 FR content: according to all the recyclers interviewed, FRs are a major barrier to plastics recycling. Current mechanical-sorting processes of shredded plastics are characterised by low efficiency, while innovative sorting systems are still at the pilot stage and have been shown to be effective only in certain cases. Therefore, the provision of information on the content of FRs in plastic components is a first step to contribute to the improvement of plastics recycling. Plastics marking (as discussed above) can contribute to the separation of plastics with FRs during the manual dismantling, allowing for their recycling at higher rates (in line with the prescription of IEC/TR 62635, 2015). However, detailed information about FRs content could be given in a more systematised way, for example through the development of specific indexes. These indexes could support recyclers in checking the use of FRs in computers and in developing future processes and technologies suitable for plastics recycling. Moreover, these indexes could support policymakers in monitoring the use of FRs in the products and, in the medium-long term, to promote products that use smaller quantities of FRs. An example of a FR content index is provided in this report. c.4 Battery marks: the identification of the chemistry type of batteries in computers is necessary in order to have efficient identification and sorting, and thus to improve the material efficiency during the recycling. It is proposed to start standardisation activities to establish standard marking symbols for batteries. The examples of the ‘battery-recycle mark’, developed by the Battery Association of Japan (BAJ), and the current standardisation activities for the IEC 62902 (standard marking symbols for batteries with a volume higher than 900 cm3) may be used as references to develop ad hoc standards. The benefits of actions for the design for recycling can be relevant. In particular, the proposed actions should contribute to increase the amounts of materials that will be recycled (6 350-8 900 t/year), in particular plastics (5 950-7 960 t/year of additional plastics), but also metals such as cobalt (55-110 t), copper (240-610 t), rare earths as neodymium and dysprosium (2 7 t) and various precious metals (gold (0.1-0.4 t), palladium (0.1-0.4 t) and silver (2 7 t)). Compared to the amount of materials recycled in the EU (2012 data), these values would represent a recycling increase of 1-2 % for cobalt, 2-5 % for palladium, and 13-50 % for rare earths.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

eDIM: further development of the method to assess the ease of disassembly and reassembly of products: Application to notebook computers

The goal of this research is to further develop the eDIM method based on a new application to some exemplary laptops, also referred to as notebooks, which is a product group that is under review for the Eco-design Directive. This study aims at evaluating the applicability of the eDIM method as a standardised method for the assessment of the ability to access or non-destructively remove and reassemble certain components/assemblies from products. The scope of this study is limited to non-destructive, also refered to as reversible, disassembly and reassembly for the purpose of repair, remanufacture and reuse. In addition, the method has been further revised to address comments received from different stakeholders on the technical report outlining the eDIM method and during the presentation of the “Study for a method to assess the ease of disassembly of electrical and electronic equipment”. All comments received, which will be addressed in the presented study, relate to the following main topics: - Applicability of the eDIM method to a broader range of products including small, portable electronics. - Applicability of the eDIM method for other types of connectors, such as glues requiring wedge/pry and peel actions to be released - Applicability of the eDIM method for partial disassembly, different levels of disassembly, reassembly and how to deal with the allocation of the (re)disassembly time for components that need to be disassembled sequentially. - Applicability of the eDIM method to identify potential improvements for product’s designs.JRC.D.3-Land Resource

Analysing the contribution of automotive remanufacturing to the circularity of materials

Remanufacturing can boost resource efficiency, circularity of raw materials and reduce environmental impacts. Material Flow Analysis and Life Cycle Assessment tools are integrated to assess the contribution of remanufacturing in reducing both consumption and impacts of primary resources for passenger cars. Results show that remanufacturing allows keeping within EU about 150,000 tonnes of materials, which is particularly relevant for Critical Raw Materials, such as rare-earth elements. Also, remanufacturing contributes in decreasing environmental impacts of vehicle's key components, as combustion engines (up to 79% of Global Warming Potential reduction). Further work will address data gaps and it will include current/innovative mobility

Anodal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation Enhances Procedural Consolidation

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Thalamocortical Sensorimotor Circuit in Multiple Sclerosis: An Integrated Structural and Electrophysiological Assessment

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Primary Sensory and Motor Cortex Activities During Voluntary and Passive Ankle Mobilization by the SHADE Orthosis

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